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TOLTECS
A. Toltecs
1. Myth is a great as the history
a) later commentaries on early civilizations seem to have
condensed all of Mexican prehistory into the term "Toltec"
1) "The Tolteca were wise. Their works were all good, all
perfect, all wonderful, all marvelous; their houses
beautiful, tiled in mosaics, smoothed, stuccoed, very
marvelous... The Tolteca were very wise; they were thinkers,
for they originated the year count, the day count; they
established the way in which the night, the day, would work;
which day sign was good, favorable..." (Sahagun, Book 10)
b) story related in Aztec document called Anales de Cuauhtitlan
or Codice Chimalpopoca (1570)
1) earlier documents from ca. 1531-32 contain similar versions
2. Center of Toltecs described as "Tollan" - "Place of Reeds"
a) many possibilities for what this refers to:
1) Teotihuacan
2) Cholula
3) Chichen Itza
3. Populated by two groups
a) Tolteca-Chichimeca
1) probably original Nahuatl-speakers who founded Toltec state
2) reported to have come from north
3) probably of somewhat higher development than "real"
Chichimeca
4) leader was Mixcoatl ("Cloud Serpent" = Milky Way
a> reported to have settled at a place in the Valley of Mexico
called Colhuacan
b> son and heir was Tolpitzin
1> later identified with Quetzalcoatl
2> described as having fair skin and black beard
c> Ce Acatl Tolpitzin
1> born at TepoztlÝn, Morelos in AD 935 or 947
2> searched for and buried deceased father's remains
3> moved Toltec capital to Tula in AD 968
a: original location was Colhuacan
b: moved via Tulancingo to Tula
4> driven out of Tula in AD 987
b) Nonoalca
4. important characters mentioned in drama of Toltec history
a) Tolpitzin Quetzalcoatl
1) enthroned as priest and king of Tollan
2) said to have led his people away from human sacrifice
3) also had problems
a> incest with sister when drunk
4) fled Tula in shame after run-in with Tezcatlipoca
a> also struggled with Ihuimecatl and Toltecatl
b) Tezcatlipoca ("Smoking Mirror")
1) sacrificer, lord of sorcerors
2) reported as charming and enchanting people
3) encounter with Quetzalcoatl
a> came in the guise of an old man
b> got Tolpitzin drunk and humiliated him in front of his
people
1> Tolpitzin fled Tula in shame
a: crossed by trickster magicians on his way
b: party frozen in pass between Iztaccihuatl and Popocatepetl
2> went east to "Tlapallan" ("red earth"), and vowed to avenge
himself on Tula
a: one story claims self-immolation on shores of Gulf of Mexico
1: apotheosized as Venus the Morning Star
b: another says that he set off on a raft of serpents to the
east, to return one day
3> CortÇs considered the avenging Quetzalcoatl
a: Tolpitzin had a reputation as being fair and bearded
4) marries daughter of Tolpitzin
5) asked to lead army of dwarfs and hunchbacks
6) tricks Toltecs with puppet, they rush forward and are
crushed to death
7) eventually killed through stoning
c) Kukulcan
1) culture hero reported to have arrived in Maya area ca. AD
986-987
a> reported as Mexican conqueror who arrived with companions to
subjugate the country
2) "Kukulcan" is a translation of "Feathered Serpent" into
Yucatec Maya
3) said to have ruled Chichen Itza until his death
d) five other rulers over period of 168 years following
Quetzalcoatl
e) HuÇmac, last king of Tula, forced to flee as a result of
growing factionalism and encroaching barbarians
1) some identify Huemac as Tezcatlipoca
a> problems with references in Chimalpopoca
2) said to have fled around AD 1063
3) droughts, conflicts, and fighting between the
Tolteca-Chichimeca and Nonoalca result in destruction of
Tula ca. 1150
a> some Tolteca-Chichimeca stayed on for 15 years or so
b> some moved on to Cholula
4) settled in Chapultepec, on western banks of Lake Texcoco
a> dated to 1156 or 1168
b> hill-crowned park, now in western Mexico City
c> killed himself
5. Toltec diaspora
a) bands of refugees wander highland and lowland Mexico,
claiming Tula as their homeland
b) some established dynasties in highland Guatemala
B. Tula
1. Geography
a) north of Valley of Mexico in southern part of state of
Hidalgo
1) rivers flow northeast to Rio Moctezuma, then down Sierra
Madre Oriental into Rio Panuco and Gulf of Mexico
b) dry, desertified area
1) hardy scrup and cactus thickets
a> mesquite, prickly pear, and yucca
2) replace ancient landscape of juniper, pine, and oak
3) soils are rich, alluvial ones
4) irrigation necessary for agriculture
a> high mountains to the east hold clouds away from area and
rainy season precipitation is insufficient for rainfall
agriculture
b> Tula area has slightly more rain, irrigation water, and
arable land that rest of region
c) climate
1) mild, with annual temperatures ranging from 16-19C
(60-66F)
2) monthly temperatures average from 11C (52F) in December to
38C (100F) in May
a> frosts frequent in winter
2. History of research
a) DesirÇ Charnay
1) excavated Adoratorio and portions of two houses
2) crude excavation techniques
b) Wigberto Jimenez Moreno
1) identified Tula as Toltec Tollan in 1930's
c) Jorge Acosta
1) began 20-year archaeological study in 1940
2) excavated and partially restored Ballcourt I, Palacio de
Quetzalcoatl, Palacio Quemado, Temples B and C, Coatepantli,
and El Corral temple
3) established site chronology based on ceramics
d) INAH's Proyecto Tula
1) in early 1970s
2) survey and excavations
a> survey of 1000 sq km
b> clearing and restoration of Ballcourt II, test pits at Tula
Chico, and excavation of Toltec house
e) Diehl and University of Missouri project
1) first visited Tula as member of Sanders' project in 1961
2) made second reconnaissance in 1969
3) goal was to study lives of ordinary people
4) first full season was in 1970, from June to October
5) two additional seasons in 1971 and 1972
3. Chonology
a) developed by Cobean on the basis of ceramics
b) Prado Phase (AD 700-800)
1) only small quantities found
2) always mixed with later remains
3) vessel shapes and decorations resemble those from elsewhere,
suggesting migrations into the region
4) indications of migrants from north
c) Corral Phase (AD 800-900)
1) identified at Tula Chico, Tula Grande, and Corral Locality
2) marks first major occupation of Tula ridge
3) community may have covered from 3-5 sq km
4) population estimated at 19,000-27,000 inhabitants
a> may be somewhat large
b> Diehl suggests 9500-13,500
5) temples on mounds at Tula Chico only known civic-religious
complex at this time
a> older structures may exist beneath later Tula Grande
structures
b> abandoned by end of Corral Phase
c> Diehl suggests abandonment may be linked to conflicts
between historical figures tied to Quetzalcoatl and
Tezcatlipoca
1> conflict usually tied to demise of Tula, but may have
occurred earlier
2> Tula Grande and Tula Chico may have served as precints for
two different factions or ethnic groups
3> conflicts may have resulted in expulsion of leader named
Quetzalcoatl
4> winners consolidated their position and enlarged Tula Grande
5> destroyed Tula Chico and left it as visual warning to other
potential dissidents
6) pottery includes cooking pots, storage jars, tableware, and
ceremonial vessels
a> most common decoration was red-on-buff style
b> vessels include "frying-pan" censers and braziers
1> used to burn copal incense
7) stone tools
a> obsidian
1> blades struck from cores
a: no workshops have been identified
2> bifacial projectile points and knives
b> basalt
1> manos, metates, mortars, and pestles
8) settlement patterns
a> Tula was the regional capital of many small villages
b> rapid growth throughout period from 750-950
c> two major groups of immigrants identified by Davies
1> Tolteca-Chichimeca
a: Nahuatl- and Otomi-speaking peasants from frontier zone to
north
b: evidence of gradual abandonment of northern frontier by
sedentary farmers supports migrations after AD 600
1: causes included drought, turmoil resulting from economic
decline of Teotihuacan (which was dependent on northern
mining communities), or pressures exerted by Teochichimeca
nomads from desert areas to the east
c: had entered "civilized" Mexico by AD 908 at southern
extension of Sierra Madre Occidental, passing through
northern Jalisco and southern Zacatecas
d: northerners introduced elements such as colonnaded halls,
death motifs, and possibly Tezcatlipoca cult
1: all appear earlier at Alta Vista, Zacatecas than at Tula or
elsewhere in Central Mexico
2> Nonoalca
a: referred to as highly civilized leaders, priests, merchants,
and craftsmen (bearers of the Mesoamerican tradition)
1: Davies sees them as comming possibly from Gulf Coast region
of Veracruz and Tabasco, or they may have come from
Teotihuacan
2: Diehl believes they probably included upper and middle
classes from Teotihuacan, Monte Alban, Xochicalco, El Taj°n,
and other centers who were forced to search out new lives
when home communities declined
A. suggests migration played a major role in formation of
Toltec civilization
B. sources indicate they spoke Nahuatl, Popoloca, Mixtec,
Mazatec, and Maya
C. would have created multilingual and multiethnic community
D. prosperity attracted more immigrants
E. Tula remembered as home of those whose "works were all good,
all perfect, all wonderful, all marvelous..."
d) Terminal Corral Phase (AD 900-950)
1) appearance of pottery types imported from Valley of Mexico
e) Tollan Phase (AD 950-1150)
1) period of Tula's greatest florescence
a> city covered 1.4 sq km (5.4 sq mi)
b> Diehl estimates maximum population at 30,000-40,000
2) large-scale architecture
a> described as having "majestic conception but mediocre
execution"
1> basic construction not up to quality of earlier examples
b> temples
1> solid basal mounds
a: rock and earth cores
b: faced with carved stone friezes
2> small enclosed shrine at summit
a: have all been destroyed
b: probably square masonry buildings with two interior rooms
1: antechamber and "inner sanctum" with idol
3> stairways leading up one side
4> according to Sahagun
a: exterior walls were covered with gold plate, silver, coral,
turquoise, colored shells, and brightly colored feathers
(including quetzal)
1: gold and silver may be exaggeration
5> three excavated by Jorge Acosta
a: Pyramid C
1: largest and most important
2: shrine, stairway, and surface had been completely looted and
destroyed by Aztec vandals
3: all sculptures and facing stones removed
b: Pyramid B
1: somewhat smaller (40 m square, 10 m high)
2: small sections of original surface found intact
3: not all sculptures had been removed
4: facing stones form macabre friezes
A. human face emerging from composite monster
1. bird, jaguar, and serpent features
2. may represent Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, Quetzalcoatl as Venus
the Morning Star, Lord of the Dawn
B. profile views of eagles and jaguars holding human hearts
C. upper frieze shows procession of prowling jaguars and
coyotes wearing necklaces or collars
1. may represent Toltec military orders
D. tablets may have been painted, but paint is gone
5: looters destroyed shrine in an attempt to carry off
structures
A. dug huge trench and lowered statues on earth ramp
B. gave up and left some sculptures on ramp
6: roof of shrine supported by pillars of carved basalt
A. one type showed Toltec warriors on all four sides of square
shafts
B. other portrayed single warrior in full round
1. these are the best known sculptures from Tula
C. doorway flanked by two feathered serpent carvings similar to
those at Chichen Itza
7: Coatepantli or Serpent Wall enclosed north side of Pyramid B
A. north face decorated with carved and painted tablets
1. depict feathered serpents devouring human skeletons
a) formed two opposing lines which met in center of wall
c: Pyramids B and C connected by L-shaped platform supporting
colonnaded vestibule
1: decorated benches show processions coming from Pyramid C on
the way to Pyramid B
d: El Corral structure
1: largest outside of Tula Grande
2: combines round and rectangular elements
A. shrine was probably round with a pointed roof
B. round temples always dedicated to Ehecatl
e: Adoratorio
1: small platform at center of main plaza at Tula Grande
2: looted by Aztecs
3: practically dismantled by Charnay, who took no notes
4: may have contained a high-status burial of Toltec leader
c> Palacio Quemado (Burnt Palace)
1> collonaded hall west of Pyramid B
2> excavated portion includes three large rooms on front
(south) and several smaller ones at the back
3> flat roofs supported by round and square columns
4> masonry benches lining two rooms decorated with carved
friezes
a: depict processions of richly dressed priests or dignitaries
1: seem to march toward front exits, and may portray actual
processions which began in building and made their way over
to Pyramid B
b: some still retain paint in red, blue, white, black, and
yellow
1: yellow may represent gold or copper
5> named by Acosta, who thought it was a palace which burned to
the ground when Tula was abandoned
a: building was definitely burned, but when and how remains
unknown
b: unlikely to have been a palace
1: layout does not resemble palaces
2: no kitchens
3: not enough rooms
4: tobacco pipes and other objects suggest ceremonial function
d> ballcourts
1> two have been excavated at Tula Grande
a: Ballcourt 1
1: large I-shaped structure at north edge of Tula Grande
b: Ballcourt 2
1: large I-shaped structure on the west edge of Tula Grande
2> both consist of raised platforms enclosing ground-level
I-shaped playing fields
3> tzompantli base excavated at east edge of Ballcourt II
a: low platform which had supported rack littered with hundreds
of fragments of human skulls
3) sculpture
a> carved frieze panels
b> bench facades
c> Atlantean roof supports
d> Chac Mools
1> interpreted as altars
2> may have been associated with cult of Tlaloc
3> also found associated with temples at Chichen Itza and
Tenochtitlan
4> six of seven examples at Tula had heads broken off
a: seventh found in Palacio Quemado in perfect condition
4) Toltec houses
a> best known from Canal Locality excavations
b> square or rectangular buildings with several rooms
c> always formed complex with as many as five houses facing
interior courtyard
d> built either on ground or raised platforms
e> house groups
1> isolated from neighbors by combination of exterior house
walls and free-standing courtyard walls
2> has small altar or shrine in center of courtyard
a: faced with special veneer of small limestone fragments laid
in horizontal rows and covered with plaster
3> Canal Locality
a: House II
1: pit in Room 12 held 9 imported vessels in original positions
A. five Tohil Plumbate goblets
B. three goblets and a bowl of bright-colored polychrome
1. probably brought from lower Central America
C. nicked bases, scratches, and worn rim paint suggested use
D. may have been used to serve frothy chocolate or pulque
b: kiln for firing ceramics in House VIII
4. Toltec economy
a) Agriculture
1) Sahagun's informants told him Toltecs had ears of corn that
could hardly be carried in one's arms, cotton in all
different colors (from bright red to green, blue, and
violet)
2) maize was the basic food source
a> comals for cooking tortillas
b> prepared by soaking or cooking kernels in lime water and
then grinding them into flour
c> lime was one of the only sources of calcium in the diet
d> tortillas also functioned as utensils
3) supplemented with beans, chili peppers, amaranth, squashes,
and maguey
4) medicinal plants and drugs also grown
5) farming in milpas and household gardens
a> earth worked with stone or wooden hoes
b> planting with wooden digging sticks
c> polycropping common (beans and squash with maize)
d> irrigation was essentianal
1> Tlaloc was probably a critical deity
e> hillside terraces built to trap water and silt for
agriculture
1> intensification technique which was probably a response to
population pressure
b) Hunting and gathering
1) wild seeds included mesquite and chenopodium
2) fruits included cherry-like capulin, persimmon, and prickly
pear
3) turkeys and small dogs were only meat-producing domestic
animals
4) bees were probably raised for honey
5) wild animals included deer, jackrabbit, cottontail rabbit
c) Cannibalism
1) burnt human bones indicate cannibalism
a> probably came from sacrificial victims
d) Craft production
1) "Toltec" came to mean master craftsman or artisan
2) Sahagun's informants described "scribes, lapidarians,
carpenters, stone cutters, masons, feather workers, feather
gluers, potters, spinners, and weavers"
a> feather work is reported to have been exceptionally good
1> used on shields
3) worked turquoise, gold, copper, tin, mica, and lead,
together with green stones, amber, rock crystal (quartz),
amethyst, pearls, and opals
a> quality may be somewhat exaggerated
4) tecali, often confused with onyx, used for beads, ornaments,
bowls, jars, and other luxury products
a> bowls made by polishing and coring
5) obsidian
a> controlled Pachuca obsidian mines
1> prized above all other obsidian by Mesoamericans
b> used-up cores found all over city, not just in workshop zone
1> suggests cores were produced for trade
c> Diehl suggests 2000 craftsmen
e) Commerce
1) Diehl believes there was a Toltec "pochteca"
a> specialized merchant group
2) trade wares included Central American polychromes, Plumbate,
Central Veracruz wares, and Huastec pottery from north Gulf
Coast
a> conspicuously absent was Fine Orange from southern Veracruz,
Tabasco, and Campeche
3) cacao and quetzal feathers may have come from Guatemala
4) northern steppe zones provided turquoise, serpentine,
quartz, rock crystal, mica, amethyst, and cinnabar
a> also peyote and hallucinogenic mushrooms
5) Pacific coast shells indicate commercial ties with
Michoacan, Nayarit, and Colima
a> metal ornaments, especially copper, may also have come from
this region
f) Politics - "The Toltec State"
1) precise definitions of borders impossible
a> included much of central Mexico and adjacent areas to the
north
1> Hidalgo, Basin of Mexico, Valley of Toluca, partsof Bajia
and Morelos
2> most of northern boundary coincided with limits of effective
agriculture
a: Teochichimeca nomads difficult to conquer and not worth the
effort
2) motivation for empire building was "free" wealth in the form
of tribute
a> Matricula de Tributos, and Aztec document, gives us an idea
of the types of tribute received
1> emphasis on three types of goods
a: food
1: maize, beans, chilis, amaranth, chian, and animals
b: textiles
1: goods of cotton and maguey fiber
2: cotton goods probably reserved for the elite
c: exotic luxury goods
1: feathers, animal skins, minearal, semi-precious stones, and
other items
d: other items
1: lumber, pottery, lime, bark paper, honey, and wild animals
3) principal central Mexican competitors
a> Cholula
1> largest and most important
2> possible sources of dispute
a: control of Basin of Mexico resources
b: trade and communication with Gulf Coast
1: one route connected with Cholula
2: the other was controlled by Tula
3> survived much longer than Tula
b> Xochicalco
1> located on hilltops near Morelos-Guerrero border
2> has large fortifications in the form of ditches and ramparts
3> emerged as a regional center while Teotihuacan influence was
still strong
4> reached its peak as Teotihuacan was in decline, ca. AD
600-800
5> went into decline in AD 800 and was abandoned within a
century
6> Toltecs may have taken advantage of situation
4) contacts with other regions
a> Oaxaca
1> Mixtec codices may contain references to Tula
2> Chadwick has suggested that Tilantongo, where 8 Deer was
ruler, was actually Tula
a: this suggestion has been largely rejected
3> Mulloy has suggested Mixtec-Toltec marriage ties, but the
archaeological evidence for this is slim
b> Gulf Coast
1> Tula may have been contemporaneous with with El Taj°n, which
Garc°a Payon believed was occupied until 1100; however,
there is virtually no evidence of contact
2> some evidence for contact with Huasteca zone
a: myths suggest Toltecs once lived on Huasteca coast and may
have roamed around in this area before coming to Tula
1: may refer to small sub-group
b: documents suggest Huastecs introduced arrow sacrifice to
Tzazolteotl and Xipe Totec ritual
1: Diehl believes these took place at the Corral temple rather
than in Tula Grande
c: round Corral temple similar to Huastec architecture
1: was almost certainly dedicated to Ehecatl
2: Ehecatl cult generally attributed to Huastecs
d: some Toltec-like architecture in Huastec zone
c> Maya lowlands
1> Putun invasions
a: may have invaded Seibal
b: may have entered eastern Yucatan from Cozzumel
c: may have been responsible for Chichen's early growth
2> Chichen Itza
a: Landa tells us the Castillo was dedicated to Kukulcan
b: Diehl identifies ballcourt as a "typical Toltec or central
Mexican structure"
c: Tzompantli is very similar to structure at Tula
d: Venus Platform and Platform of Eagles and Jaguars seen as
analogous to Adoratorio at Tula
3> Balankanche
a: cave site a few miles east of the Castillo
b: subterranean passages connect several large chambers
c: offerings include Toltec-style braziers decorated with
Tlaloc faces and Toltec warriors
1: may be imports from Tula
d> Maya highlands
1> histories of Quiche, Cakchiquel, and other highland Maya
groups contain references to Toltecs
a: claim Toltec ancestry of ruling dynasties
2> archaeological evidence has not confirmed these contacts
3> may have actually come from Chichen, claiming Toltec
ancestry
4> indirect evidence for contact
a: Alta Verapaz the prime source for quetzal feathers
b: Plumbate pottery manufactured in coastal Guatemala
e> Northern Mexico
1> Alta Vista
a: located in Zacatecas
b: colonized by Teotihuacanos ca. AD 350
c: exploited exotic minerals such as malachite, cinnabar,
hematite, limonite, colored chert, galena, and rock crystal
d: at least 750 mines opened over four centuries
e: imported turquoise from region of New Mexico
1: more than 17,000 fragments found associated with workshops
f: colonnaded halls may be prototype for Tula
g: also share human sacrifice, cannibalism, and skull racks
h: probably colonial operation for intensive extraction of
resources
2> La Quemada
a: fortified site several hundred km south of Alta Vista
b: garrison on a steep hill
c: temples, ballcourt, colonnaded hall, what may be military
barracks, and an extensive road network
d: may have been major control point along inland trade route
extending north from central Mexico to turquoise sources at
Chaco Canyon
1: New Mexico turquoise mines located ca. 4600 km (2800 mi)
away
e: Diehl sees it as control point for goods going to Tula
f: suggests site may have been built by Toltecs
g: another possibility is the Caxcan Indians, an agricultural
Chichimec group mentioned as Toltec allies
h: every excavation at site indicates it was sacked and burned
3> Casas Grandes
a: located in Chihuahua
b: trade and manufacturing center with strong ties to central
or west Mexico
c: florescence from 1060-1340
d: evidence for serpent cult, ballcourts
e: shells from Gulf of California were main raw material
f: others include copper, turquise, rock crystal, specular iron
crystals, and other rare minerals and stones
g: featherworking was also important
1: remains of macaws and aviaries where they were kept
h: products probably traded to Arizona and New Mexico, as well
as south into central and west Mexico
i: was attacked and burned in AD 1350
j: Diehl believes ties to Tula were weak, given the chronology
5. Fall
a) Sahagun's version
1) most mythical
2) epic conflict between Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl
a> latter represented by priest or ruler Ce Acatl Tolpitzin
Quetzalcoatl
b> may have shared sovereignty with Huemac
3) Tezcalipoca is said to have created so much misfortune that
the Toltecs perished or fled Tula
a> Quetzalcoatl fled to Gulf Coast
b> Huemac fled to Chapultepec
b) archaeological evidence
1) evidence for fire and destruction found in every building
2) not clear that all of it took place at once
3) Canal Locality houses appear to have been abandoned by 1100
on the basis of radiocarbon dates
4) urban peripheries appear to have been abandoned before
central core
c) Davies scenario
1) northern frontier shifted southward through time, opening
Tula to attack ca. 1120
a> caused some Toltecs to migrate into lands claimed by Cholula
2) immigrants from northern frontier turned on their hosts and
assisted Cholula with help agains Toltec invaders
3) group of northerners, led by Mixcoatl, settled in Basin of
Mexico after helping Cholulans
4) Mixcoatl's sone Ce Acatl Topiltzin gained control of Tula in
AD 1166
5) conflicts arose with Tula-born faction led by Huemac
6) increased pressures from Huastecs and Chichimecs led to
stress and downfall of both men
a> problems were both internal and external
1> agriculture
a: agriculture was especially sensitive to drought
b: problem became critical with population growth
c: Tula may have become overpopulated by 1100
d: climate change and decrease in precipitation may have caused
many years of famine
e: historical accounts contain many references to food problems
1: often coupled with stories of conflicts and battles over
land
2: faimine may have coincided with period of greatest influx of
population
2> social integration
a: problems of multiethnicity
b: continual flow of migrants into the city caused strains
1: migrants may have been toughened and warlike
c: Diehl interprets Tezcatlipoca-Quetzalcoatl conflict as
inter-ethnic struggle between northern faction and older,
established group
3> external
a: southward retraction of northern frontier
b: competition from neighboring states
1: Cholula may have been principal rival
2: Diehl suggests Huastecs may have attempted to wrest control
of Pachuca obsidian source
3: unemployed craftsment would have put a drain on the economy
4: un